Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework provides an in-depth analysis of the principal theoretical underpinnings related to research in education, undergraduate research in languages, and distance education, since these are part of the research question as well the objective of this study.

Research in Education

Educational research could be defined as a systematic process, a logical activity, an empirical undertaking, a reductive process, and a replicable and transmittable process which aims to encompass a scientific method, hypothesis, or treatment group. Studies should be able to be replicated and generalized and should adhere to rigorous standards in design, method, and the interpretation of results (^{Ciraso et al., 2022}; ^{Tuckman & Harper, 2012}). Therefore, educational research is a practice in the current curricula of universities to guarantee quality training and provide pre-service teachers benefits in their future performance, in this case, as teachers.

Universities and colleges in Colombia promote undergraduate research as part of curricula. In this view, the ^{Institute of Education Sciences & National Science Foundation (2013)} provides six basic types of research in education. Foundational research enhances fundamental knowledge for educational improvement; early-stage research explores connections among educational concepts, laying the groundwork for future interventions; design and development research creates solutions to enhance education goals; efficacy research tests strategies under ideal conditions, while effectiveness research assesses real-world scenarios; and scale-up research evaluates interventions across diverse populations and contexts without extensive researcher involvement (^{Institute of Education Sciences & National Science Foundation, 2013}).

Educational research (ER) is different from other types of research that deal with inanimate intangibles like point masses or rigid bodies, such as research in physics, as ER deals with humans, human behaviors, and the learning organizations of which they are a part. As such, a code of ethics and morals demands that it be conducted differently given the nature of human beings themselves (^{Wellington, 2015}). This construct is important since this study is the result of an educational study that provides meaningful results in the foreign languages research practices field.

Undergraduate Research in Languages

According to ^{Borg & Liu (2013)} , research by language teachers began in the 1980s to improve language teaching through action research. Nowadays, conducting research in this field encompasses not only different approaches but also different areas, including language, literature, linguistics, and skills development. These areas can be further divided into sub-disciplines. ^{Clark et al. (2022)} notes that “the predominant mode of formal undergraduate research within literary studies is the dissertation/thesis and small-scale research” (p. 5), offering a wide variety of possibilities in terms of interests, topics, and approaches for students in the B. Ed. Program. ^{Muhartoyo (2007)} outlines four research methodologies that students can use when conducting research within the field of language studies: experimental, quasi- or pre-experimental, ethnography, and case study. The four previous methods can equip students with various useful tools for conducting language research in a simple way. However, language development is a complex system, and it would oversimplify to confine the language research to just four methods.

Eight methodological principles have been offered for language development research, including (i) ecological validity (context is essential) (ii) complexity (reductionism avoided), (iii) dynamic processes (changing relationships among variables), (iv) reciprocal causality (events having many interconnected antecedents), (v) co-adaptation (systems causing coevolution in each other), (vi) collective variables (variables showing the interaction among multiple systems over time), (vii) heterochronic analysis (linkages analyzed across levels and timescales), and (viii) variability (variability essential and expected around stabilities, rather than noise or measurement error) (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, as cited in ^{Nimehchisalem, 2018}, p.32).

Currently, many language studies are conducted as a result of teachers’ interventions aimed at effectively addressing language phenomena for research purposes. According to ^{Phakiti (2015)} , some characteristics of language research are specific, individual, and environmental aspects of language use, description of phenomena in learning languages, understanding the development of language learning and its variations, prediction of future changes, stages, or success in language learning students in the B. Ed. Program, and incorporation of knowledge or theories in language classes. This research process serves as a valuable source for analyzing and interpreting information, as well as suggesting and redirecting practices in foreign language matters. As ^{Nimehchisalem (2018)} emphasized that the complexity in the languages field calls for research methods capable of accommodating the dynamic, nonlinear, and open way in which language learning is viewed. Therefore, the methodological principles shared in this section are not affirmed to be exclusive to the field of language research; rather, they can serve as methodological references depending on the data and objectives of language research.

Distance Education

Distance education has emerged as a viable alternative to traditional classroom education. It has been acknowledged as a means to provide access to education to underprivileged and remote regions, enhance development, promote social mobility, and offer flexibility to learners (^{Galvis & Carvajal, 2022}; ^{Marchisotti et al., 2022}; MEN, 2022). However, for this modality of education to be effective, it must meet certain requirements, such as face-to-face and virtual guidance, and quality conditions that are consistent with the social, cultural, and environmental demands of the context (MEN, 2019, p. 4). This can be achieved through a culture of constant self-assessment, internal and external evaluations of training, research, cultural, academic, and extension dynamics, which promote continuous improvement and ensure the relevance of academic programs (Marchisotti et al., 2022; MEN, 2022).

Some studies have revealed a discernible bias and inadequate credibility towards the effectiveness of distance learning in enhancing the academic performance of pre-service teachers. This is largely due to the limited understanding of the pedagogical underpinnings that undergird this mode of learning (^{Galvis & Carvajal, 2022}; ^{Marchisotti et al., 2022}). Nonetheless, countries around the globe have capitalized on recent technological and social changes to promote this educational model. This is because it offers an opportunity to personalize learning, encourages innovation and creativity in the development of teaching and learning materials, and expands access to tertiary education in remote areas (^{Guillén et al., 2021}; Galvis & Carvajal, 2022; Marchisotti et al., 2022).

Likewise, other studies have highlighted the virtues of distance education in promoting academic support in learning and research processes, and even better results for students, through effective pedagogical models adapted to the needs and contexts of the students (^{Guillén et al., 2021}; ^{Galvis & Carvajal, 2022}). Therefore, it is necessary to analyze alternative ways of carrying out research processes within distance modalities and the aspects that educational actors must consider promoting educational research at all educational levels.

Data Collection and Analysis

This investigative study employs a qualitative approach, as it provides flexibility in exploring various perspectives of the phenomenon or problem through qualitative data (^{Busetto et al., 2020}). Thus, the study is framed as a case study, enabling researchers to address the phenomenon through the collection of unstructured data from primary sources. This approach facilitates researchers in gaining comprehensive insights into the realities of pre-service teachers, their vicissitudes, and the challenges they encounter in distance education. To do so, researchers used a triangulation process, which offered a diverse range of perspectives, contradictions, and alternatives to explicate the targeted phenomenon (^{Merriam & Tisdell, 2015}).

Participants and Setting

Sixty undergraduate students from the Bachelor’s in Foreign Language Education Program at a private University in Colombia participated in this study. They were pre-service teachers in their 9th semester who were enrolled in the final of three research classes and were in the process of developing their final research paper required for graduation. Students in the B. Ed. Program in this sample are studying distance modality and are located in different cities and regions of Colombia, with 62% of the participants in rural areas. The age range of the participants is between 20 and 50 years, with most undergraduate students already employed as teachers. All participants were informed about and provided consent for the use of the information collected in the results through an e-consent form. Anonymity is ensured to protect the participants’ identities.

Data Collection Instruments

A semi-structured interview was conducted with the aim of engaging in informal conversation to understand peoples’ experiences and points of view, as well as to identify the related aspects that could influence the research process of pre-service teachers (^{Busetto et al., 2020}). The pre-service teachers shared their thoughts, experiences, and challenges related to researching, not only as distance students but also as amateur researchers in general. Subsequently, two 1.5-hour focus groups were organized, during which open-ended questions were used to gather data and understand the difficulties they encountered in conducting research.

Class observations were conducted via video recording from August 2021 to June 2022. Throughout this period, the authors made detailed field notes based on their observations of the recorded classes. These notes were then utilized to identify and analyze topics related to the realities of pre-service teachers and their research process, as outlined by ^{Canals (2017)} .

Table 1 Demographic information of the participants 

Note. Ss = students

Alongside the instruments, data collection was also done through document analysis. Documents guide researchers through the understanding of relevant insights to the research problems and help uncover concepts and meanings (^{Bowen, 2009}; ^{Merriam & Tisdell, 2015}). The research submissions of pre-service teachers in the consolidation process of the paper and the proposals were analyzed as documents. Participants developed their research proposals and submitted drafts to the researchers, which were used as a source of information for the study.

Category 1: Context and Time Embody Pre-service Teachers’ First-hand Limitations to Research

The first issue that undergraduate students face is conducting their initial research in academic formal and informal contexts where they are developing their investigation, considering the formal context as the institutional scenarios framed in the school, and the informal context as that one they interact with in social, cultural, and environmental realities (^{Sobe & Kowalczyk, 2012}). Most of the participants do not have a steady context, as their opportunities are defined within the practicum subjects linked with the curriculum that MEN (2015a, 2015b) has set as a requirement to complete studies or obtain their degree. The pre-service teachers have two practicum subjects in the languages bachelor in which they can conduct research exercises. However, the context might change from one class to another, implying that the context is not always the same, even when conducting their final research study. This affects the development of research with pre-service teachers.

I have a problem… I’ve changed my job a couple of times and it is tough because it made me change my research purposes again and again. For me, doing research is difficult because I’ve constantly changed the context. (GC, FG, October of 2021) .

A large percentage of the participants reveal that they are working as teachers already and are pursuing the undergraduate program in order to work. Most of them are employed in the private education sector in Colombia and frequently relocate for work. That is to say, the context in which they operate is one of the main reasons why conducting the research might be challenging for them.

My problem is that I am working as a teacher. When I started my research proposal development, I had a crystal-clear understanding of the problem, the research statement, etc. But I had to move to another job and everything changed. In that way, it is hard to continue with the study. (LP, FG, October of 2021)

In the spite of the above, the identified issue tends to exacerbate when they need to gather information in the context and/or obtain authorization to do it.

I have found that there are some external problems. Sometimes both the school administration and the parents do not authorize us to make observations, which is complicated. From my experience, people get scared when they hear the word “research”. In fact, there was once a teacher who got upset because I was observing her class. She did not want me to be there. (ES, Int., June of 2022)

The previous matter affects the normal development of research, and it becomes a reason why conducting studies of this type can take too long.

The participants from this study expressed that even though the context is somewhat hard to handle, they are still willing to conduct research. The problem related to the context is worth sharing due to the need for increasing awareness about the importance of local and national educational contexts for research matters, as this might lead to reforms in education (^{Crossley, 2010}; ^{Le Fanu, 2010}). More information about the contextual situations in educational settings “should be provided for practitioners and policymakers to enable the latter to make more informed policy decisions” (^{Cukurova et al., 2018}, p. 14).

In agreement with the previous authors, some pre-service teachers have expressed concerns regarding their inability to conduct research due to the absence of a suitable context. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that some of these pre-service teachers are full-time students, which may result in a lack of formal educative context. As a potential solution to overcome this obstacle, conducting autobiographies research in informal contexts could be considered. However, it is imperative for these pre-service teachers to critically assess the worthiness of their autobiographies study before undertaking it. In comparison, some of the pre-service teachers who have a formal educative context tend to develop action research since they want to intervene with their teaching or language skills purposes. For that matter, having or not having a formal educative context might be a biased factor to determine the type of research in distance education (Obv., 2021-2022). As mentioned above, the type of research conducted by distance pre-service teachers might not be the result of a rigorous intervention in their contexts but a mere consequence of fulfilling a requirement.

In addition, the second issue identified was time management and engagement, specifically regarding the amount of time participants dedicated to research. Firstly, it should be noted that most students in the B. Ed. Program hold full-time jobs and are involved in time-consuming extra-curricular activities. These students face time constrains in completing their major, so they must manage their time appropriately (^{Ortiz, 2020}).

Time management is one of the hardest parts of this modality. For several reasons, it is difficult to spend time on research issues. Research takes a lot of time and I have to create strategies to fulfill all of my duties. I work and study as well, so I don’t have too much time to research. (CD, Int., June of 2022)

The students in the B. Ed. Program are tasked with carrying out multiple activities, not limited to academic ones. Participants are undoubtedly aware that this process demands ample time to read and consult theories and databases. In coherence, ^{Bocar (2009)} stated that a great percentage of pre-service teachers encountered problems with the time to finish their studies/projects. It does not imply a lack of interest, since the participants are willing to learn, but throughout the process, they might lose interest in their research as a result. This can be seen as one of the main realities in research: the lack of effective time management does not allow researchers to contribute to research productivity (^{Chase et al., 2012}). This suggests that the studies conducted by pre-service teachers might not be as productive as they could be.

Effective time management allows researchers to maintain focus on their work, contributing to research productivity.

Here are some opinions shared by pre-service teachers in this regard:

Research is a process that requires a considerable amount of time to get started, and it is necessary to search for literature or theories to support the research… the application of research requires a lot of time… if we talk about research in education, there is not enough time to carry it out due to the need to comply with the curricular programs established by the institutions. (EA, Int., June of 2022)

Occasionally, the pre-service teachers asked for some deadline extension to submit the assignment. They argued not to have time enough to fulfill with assignment entirely, claiming to also have difficulties selecting and consolidating the information needed. In some cases, the pre-service teachers submitted the papers developed slightly, the process took extra time because the PST had to work on corrections and suggestions to improve the paper and the research process was delayed (Doc. analysis, 2021-2022).

Consequently, the pre-service teachers may show curiosity about research matters, but this interest tends to vanish when encountering time as a barrier. To some extent, it should be clarified that most of the pre-service teachers found the research process to be a complementary part of their training. Besides, the time in this modality is valuable since the students have many duties to deal with and found research to be a demanding process. The educational research approach is somewhat well suited for the student’s level of training, but not because they perceive it as an extremely meaningful activity that demands too much of their time. In distance learning, time is a key element that might pave the way for successful research studies, as pre-service teachers in this modality are not solely focused on their studies, as can be the case with face-to-face students.

Category 2: Disparities between the Research Process and Curriculum

There are some matters that pre-service teachers consider to be missing links in their research learning process. To start with, pre-service teachers have identified a disparity between the research subjects and their curriculum. They do not perceive the research classes as something meaningful that goes beyond the consolidation of their research study, viewing these classes as disjointed from the others in the curriculum.

We understand research classes as simply another subject we have to take. That’s it. Those are not linked to other ones. We learn things and then we forget them, as they are not used along the program; just at the end, when we have to develop our research study. (GR, FG, October of 2021)

The pre-service teachers have attested that there exists a dearth of connection between the research classes and the curriculum. They express encountering too much theory and barely applying all the knowledge they have acquired in research subjects in their overall academic training.

The preceding fact is juxtaposed with claims that curricula should be based on research, among other reasons, because research involves the creation of knowledge, resulting in a curriculum production process that should be shared (^{Clements, 2007}), and research tutors must help pre-service teachers understand the relationship between their relevant role in a research task and its larger goals to keep motivation (^{Morrison et al., 2020}).

Most participants of this study prioritize linguistic classes and those in which they might improve their proficiency in the target language over research: “I personally do not like doing research. I prefer to have good English proficiency” (SV, FG, October of 2021).

When asked if research knowledge is helpful for classes other than research-oriented ones, they argued:

What I’ve learned in developing my thesis has nothing to do with my job… it is not something that I can match with my daily activities. This is just theory. In class we are focused on the practice. (SA, Int., June of 2022)

I just want to do research in my profession as a teacher when I do research to implement something new and different in my class, but not this kind of intense and complicated research. (VR, FG, October of 2021)

In the same vein, it was observed in classes that the participation of pre-service teachers is limited when they must discuss about the theoretical underpinning of the research subjects in comparison to when their interventions have a communicative purpose or are oriented to advance in their language skills (Obv., 2021-2022).

Most pre-service teachers expressed overall difficulties in this field, which is one of the reasons why the process of research might take too long to develop for some of them. Some pre-service teachers choose to conduct research to meet their degree requirements, but it is not a goal for most of them.

On the other hand, seventeen out of sixty participants expressed that they find research interesting and benefit from research experiences. Though most of the distance learning, pre-service teachers express little enthusiasm toward research, they are aware of the benefits, claiming the following:

It is undeniable that the experience in the different kinds of research classes has been positive, constructive, critical, and enriching. Especially, during the process of my research study carried out since it has allowed the consolidation of critical thinking skills and a constructive spirit of research matters. (CN, Int., June of 2021)

In some specific cases, when the pre-service teachers have to use the research knowledge in other classes, they find useful what they have learned. Thus, the assignments that include the design of instruments such as interviews or surveys were easier for them to develop since they have designed similar assignments in other classes as well as the application of APA rules depending on the type of task. For instance, a theoretical framework construction, a research design analysis, or a specific research process such as codification or triangulation of information are processes that the pre-service teachers seldom use in other classes. As a result, carrying out research processes becomes a difficult task for them (Doc. analysis, 2021-2022).

In some cases, few pre-service teachers found the research knowledge useful in some way. A significant number of students are overwhelmed by the academic process in this matter but when they get involved in research, they develop skills that relate to other aspects of their lives.

I must say that from the research seedbed to my research classes, they were very good and forceful. I became an organized and disciplined person; I spent two hours every night and all weekend and I knew I had to respect that. (MO, Int., June of 2021)

In agreement with other studies, the benefits of undergraduate research are numerous and far-reaching, including learning the balance between independence and collaboration, helping students explore career fields, and develop independent critical thinking skills (^{Lopatto, 2010}; ^{Madan & Teitge, 2013}; ^{Petrella & Jung, 2008}).

Due to their multiple duties, pre-service teachers who engage in research in this modality can enhance their willingness to conduct research by connecting their research studies with their daily activities, such as work and general live. Therefore, when the students in this modality integrate their research studies with their daily lives, the research process becomes optimal. They are able to relate theory to practice, which assists them in conducting the research process effectively.

I am an entrepreneur; I am working with children. I teach them English. I could connect my research study with my business and now the time that I have to investigate would be almost the same as the time I am with the kids. (CN, Int., June of 2021)

Findings reveal how these last student can have optimal progress by leveraging both academic and daily elements to fulfill all of their everyday duties (Obv., 2021-2022).

The outcomes of the study underscore the significance of incorporating undergraduate programs in foreign languages under the distance modality that establish a more direct correlation between the needs of the students and the curriculum. Such an approach has the potential of yielding valuable contributions from students that can be further enhanced and utilized in both formal and informal educational contexts. By doing so, the products of students’ research can be promoted, and their contributions to the research field, as well as other elements of the study plan, could be maximized.

Category 3: Pre-service Teachers’ Confusions Emerged from Research Tutors’ Feedback and Guidance.

In the case of the bachelor’s degree program at the private university under examination, the research process entails three pivotal stages: firstly, the exploration of the research subject; secondly, the assignment of the pre-service teachers to guide their study; and finally, the submission of the final research study for review by a faculty committee, which will offer corrections or adjustments as needed.

Pre-service teachers are subjected to various educators’ criteria and assessments to be guided throughout this process. Consequently, they may become confused about research matters because they receive conflicting feedback, potentially making research difficult in the distance modality.

When asked about the synergy between different guidance from research tutors, pre-service teachers affirmed:

There is coherence in the concepts used in the research. None said something different to regard with the way the research in the program is conducted… They all have the same concept about what “action research” or “case study” means but regarding the feedback everything changes abruptly. (CD, Int., June of 2022)

I don’t understand why, if one professor has said something is good, the next one tells me it isn’t. It implies that what I had done needs to be changed. (GR, Int., June of 2022)

Pre-service teachers found that the research terminology remains consistent in terms of definitions and conceptual meanings. However, they have found that research tutors hold varying visions and perspectives on research issues. Consequently, each tutor guides pre-service teachers according to his/her research perspective, resulting in differing feedback.

In general, pre-service teachers do not find the guidance provided by the research tutors to be coherent with the research criteria established by the program. Independent of the content of the research classes, the participants of this study found dissimilar points of view among tutors regarding feedback. This resulted in conflicting guidance for pre-service teachers throughout their studies. Some students expressed difficulty in putting research theory into practice and thus meeting the criteria for developing undergraduate research projects in their major.

It was identified that some pre-service teachers have difficulties with how they are told to conduct research and how research is conducted in reality. Participants follow the research process as they are told to conduct it. However, when they are in a different stage of their research process or the research tutor is changed, they are forced to restate their study or discard the advances achieved up to that point (Obv., 2021-2022).

One of the main objectives of feedback in conducting research is to assist pre-service teachers in consolidating their final papers. As stated, “feedback is an effective way to further enhance (pre-service teachers’) reflective learning in undergraduate research. In particular, provision of feedback from mentors is essential for promoting pre-service teachers’ deep approach to learning” (^{Imafuku et al., 2015}, p. 54). In this regard, the participants of this study found that the discrepancy in the feedback as a barrier that impedes their progress towards successfully completing this process.

Each research tutor has a set of objectives to guide the classes according to the curriculum; they explain them based on how they understand them, but the feedback provided is different. The research tutor teaches the curriculum (to reflect) how they think Research is and for that reason, feedback provided is not the same, some of them say something in one way and others in a different way. So, should research be understood in different ways? Should it change depending on who teaches the class? (SF, Int., June of 2022)

This excerpt from an interview exemplifies why pre-service teachers struggle to comprehend the systematic process that encompasses the scientific method, which can be replicated and generalized with rigorous standards in design, method, and the interpretation of results, as can be found in educational research, and applied in their own research exercises (^{Ciraso et al., 2022}; ^{Tuckman & Harper, 2012})

Moreover, pre-service teachers might get information from diverse research stances and with such a varied perspective, they lose interest in researching. This can be one of the reasons why pre-service teachers might not continue in research processes, mainly due to the lack of coherent guidance or clarifications on how to conduct research properly, as stated in the following excerpt:

I did a process with my mentor and then, when I submitted my study to the faculty committee, they suggested that I change a lot. I respect both, my mentor, and the committee members, but I don’t get why there was such a difference in their points of view nor why my research study had to change in such a way… I trust my mentor; however, I did not find synergy in their research stances… It is frustrating (AC, Int., October of 2021)

The process of the pre-service teachers tends to progress when they received the continuous guidance of their mentors. Yet, the consolidation of the paper is evident when pre-service teachers and research tutors are in synergy in terms of the deadlines for submissions and suggestions provided to improve the paper. Both sides follow their path and try to respect it.

In this interview, the feedback encountered by the pre-service teachers is not the same, so these students are aware that research tutors, acting as jurors, have different approaches but share the same target. Nevertheless, when significant differences in feedback arise, pre-service teachers begin to lose motivation for research. Initially, they think that the research process must be done according to the preferences of the educator in charge, and they try to follow their recommendations. Yet, towards the end of the process, they may become frustrated as they realize they lack a solid understanding of research as a systematic process, which involves solving a problem, through thorough data collection and analysis, supported by methods and approaches framed upon in particular ontological and epistemological underpinnings used in their research exercises (^{Nimehchisalem, 2018}).

When educators work together, the guidance provided to the pre-service teachers becomes more meaningful as the criteria, assessment, and feedback are aligned. Consequently, participants found that it was not a big deal to manage any differences. The synergy between the research tutors who teach the research classes is extremely necessary to help pre-service teachers successfully finish their study (Obv., 2021, 2022).

Undoubtedly, research should be concise, clear, and accurate. Oluwatayo (2021) affirms that validity and reliability are touchstones of all types of educational research. It must be conducted not based on the research tutors’ preferences, but on its reliability and validity according to the research process and it cannot be a reason that student researchers stop researching.

Accordingly, it is not a matter of unifying all the research tutors’ feedback because, through the different stances and perspectives, the research studies conducted by the pre-service teachers might get enriched and complemented properly.

The feedback provided should be helpful for the pre-service teachers to conduct research studies effectively. However, this must not be used to get pre-service teachers confused. For that matter, the pre-service teacher did not find the feedback as a useful ally to improve research practices but as a barrier that make the process harder to conduct or understand.